Japanese American Internment: The Economic Consequences Essay example -

United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt once proclaimed that the Pearl Harbor bombings that took place on December 7th, 1941 is, â€Å" a date which will live in infamy.† The events that unfolded that fateful morning not only resulted in a U.S declaration of war against Japan the next day (subsequently promoted Germany/Italy to declare war against U.S three days later), but also proved to be a traumatic landmark event in the history of Japanese Americans. The aftermath of the Pearl Harbor bombings prompted Franklin D. Roosevelt to authorize Executive Order 9066 on February 19th, 1942, which consequently cleared they way for Japanese American internment. In Hawaii, where Japanese Americans made up one-third of the population, only 1200 to 1800 were interned. On the mainland (specifically the West Coast) over 100,000 Japanese Americans were interned. Despite widespread outcry in Japanese American communities, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of these exclusio n orders in the 1944 landmark case Korematsu v. United States. The horrors of internment continued until January 2, 1945 when the exclusion order was nullified, and in 1946 the last internment was closed. Despite being released the hardships and material loss suffered by Japanese American internees were far from over. Many internees who survived this traumatic ordeal not only suffered from psychological problems, but also lost their properties and incomes. Although the U.S. government issued a public apology and compensated surviving former internees under the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, it is still unclear if this adequately compensates former internees for the long-term economic hardships that followed as a result of internment. An estimated 110,000 Japanes... ...oney can bring back deceased family members or reverse the deep psychological scars that remain with some for the rest of their lives. The internment of Japanese Americans in the end teaches us that, â€Å"we are all people, no matter what color or race.† Bibliography 1. â€Å"Life after the nightmare.† Oracle ThinkQuest, 2011. Web. . 2. Chin, Aimee. â€Å"Long-Run Labor Market Effects of Japanese American Internment.† Houston: Department of Economics, University of Houston, 2004. 1-25. Print. 3. Rawls, J. J., & Bean, W. (2008). California: An Interpretive History (9th ed., pp. 189-276). San Francisco, CA: McGraw Hill. 4. Wright, Steven. â€Å"The Civil Liberties Act of 1988.† Dartmouth Education, n.d. Web. .

Death of Salesman Analysis Essay

Women assume various roles in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. Mainly we find them in the home, or the â€Å"workplace†. For us, they serve as windows to observe and formulate an opinion of the main character, Willy Loman and his boys Happy and Biff. For reference, the women include, Linda Loman (Willy’s wife) the boy’s childhood and current girls/women, â€Å"The Woman† (Willy’s mistress), and Jenny (Charley’s secretary). Notably, there are several aspects that unify these women. First, they are subordinate to the men; second, they are emotionally or materially dependent; third, the men are mutually dependent on the women for emotional or physical needs; and fourth, they serve as male ego supporters. Moreover, the women are portrayed as weak. Granted, societal views of women’s roles have drastically changed over the past seven decades, the women’s characters in Death of Salesman have not. Miller skillfully navigates us through the past and present in order to capture a complete image of Willy’s life. I will attempt to do the same with Linda Loman. I selected her because of her distinctive propensity to be overly protective of Willy. My intention is not to understate the relevance of the other women. Yet, my focus on Linda is based on my opinion that she is the central female figure and best ambassador to reveal Willy’s dynamic nature. Willy: â€Å"You’re my foundation and support, Linda.† (1216) We are introduced to Linda in the present. For the time and even for today, she is the ideal American wife. Caring, nurturing, supportive, and loyal to her husband and children. Yet, today, one may say overly supportive. A captive of the time period, she is limited; and therefore, emotionally and financially dependent on her husband. While here, we are able to feel her comforting and sheltering nature. She selflessly protects Willy from his insecure thoughts, his children, and acknowledging his financial failures. Yet, she cannot guard him from his depression and suicidal attempts and ideations. The scene opens with Willy prematurely returning from a sales trip. He is explaining to Linda that he could not maintain mental focus and that the car kept veering off onto the shoulder of the road. As we will come to know, she is well aware that Willy’s mental status is declining. She deflects the blame by saying, â€Å"Oh. Maybe it was the steering again. I don’t think Angelo knows the Studebaker.† (1213) Willy accepts responsibility, â€Å"No, it’s me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1214) Nonetheless, she continues to divert the cause by saying, â€Å"Maybe it’s your glasses†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (1214) Her well-intended effort to be supportive is unfortunately enabling Willy’s serious â€Å"nervous breakdown† to be ignored. In the literary sense, it is an example of situational irony. Her intention to be helpful is not actually helping. For us, it is in this moment with Linda, that we immediately realize that Willy is undergoing serious internal and exter nal stress. It is manifesting into depression, mumbling, mental and physical wandering, and severe depression. It will proliferate throughout the play, and tragically, be the cause of his final decision. During their conversation we are also introduced to the adult boys, Biff and Happy. Linda informs Willy that the boys are both sleeping, and that, â€Å"Happy took Biff on a date tonight.† (1214) The report automatically generates interest in Willy. Which, we can translate to mean, Willy is in favor of his boys being in the company of women. As the conversation continues we are made aware of the tension that exists between Willy and his oldest son, Biff. As well, Linda let’s us know that Willy has a temper. She tells him, â€Å"You shouldn’t have criticized him, Willy, especially after he just got off the train. You mustn’t lose your temper with him.† (1215) For me, his temper is validated by his response, â€Å"When the hell did I lose my temper?† (1215) Typically, a non-temperamental person would not respond in that manner. As they continue on the topic of Biff, we get the first glimpse of Willy’s contradictory nature. At one moment Willy says, â€Å"Biff is a lazy bum!† (1215) While in a follow up comment he says, â€Å"Biff Loman is lost. In the greatest country in the world a young man with such—personal attractiveness, gets lost. And such a hard worker. There’s one thing about Biff—he’s not lazy.† (1215) Well, which is it? Is Biff lazy, or not? Willy’s contradictory tendency will be further exemplified. I find a touch of comical irony, when prior to going to the kitchen, for a glass of milk, he asks, â€Å"Why am I always being contradicted? (1215) While in the kitchen, we go back in time with Linda and Willy. We see that her support of Willy has endured the test of time, as have his inconsistencies. The younger Linda asks, â€Å"Did you sell anything?† (1224) At first Willy says, â€Å"I did five hundred gross in Providence and seven hundred gross in Boston.† (1224) Linda wants to tabulate his commission so she retrieves a pencil and paper from her apron pocket. She â€Å"number-crunches† and replies, â€Å"Two hundred—my God! Two hundred and twelve dollars!† (1225) Once he realizes that there will be an expectation to produce that money, he back-peddles and says, â€Å"Well, I didn’t figure it yet, but†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1225) She is persistent, â€Å"How much did you do?† Then a more realistic figure emerges, â€Å"Well, I—I did—about a hundred and eighty gross in Providence. Well, no—it came to—roughly two hundred gross on the whole trip.† (1225) As easily as Linda can do the math, so can we. Willy’s original report claims approximately 1,200 gross. When realistically his entire trip probably netted 200 gross. If we are inclined to believe that estimate as honest, he has overinflated his sales by six times the actual amount. After realizing that the actual commission amount is not enough to cover the monthly expenses, a dialogue ensues that reveals another incongruence and his insecurity. Willy states, â€Å"Oh, I’ll knock them dead next week. I’ll go to Hartford. I’m very well liked in Hartford. You know, the trouble is Linda, people don’t seem to take to me.† (1225) Again, in the same sentence he contradicts himself. I think we can all relate to feeling â€Å"less than† at some point in our lives. Since, I know I can, his previous and following statement elicits empathy on my part. He claims that people are laughing at him when he goes to his sales calls. He doesn’t know the reason, he is just aware. Linda’s perpetual support of Willy continues, â€Å"Oh, don’t be foolish† and â€Å"Why? Why would they laugh at you? Don’t talk that way, Willy†. (1225) She continues to console him and coddles his fragile ego by replying, â€Å"But you’re doing wonderful, dear. You’re making seventy to a hundred dollars a week.† (1225) There is something to admire about her positive outlook. Willy continues to share his feelings about his diminished sense of self-worth. This time, it comes from his critique of his physical image, â€Å"I’m fat. I’m very foolish to look at, Linda. I didn’t tell you, but Christmas time I happened to be calling on F.H. Stewarts, and a salesman I know, as I was going in to see the buyer, I heard him say something about—walrus. And I—I cracked him right across the face. I won’t take that. I simply will not take that. But they do laugh at me. I know that†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1226) I would like to draw your attention to the opening scene where Linda cautions Willy about his temper. We are now in the past, and we have a tangible example of Willy’s temper. In this case, it has even erupted into violence. Linda doesn’t even bat an eye when he tells her that he hit someone. Instead, she is the constant pillar that supports his ego, â€Å"Willy, darling, you’re the handsomest man in the worl d—† (1226) Really, Linda? I can’t imagine my husband telling me he hit someone and not be compelled to probe him further about the incident. Through Willy’s reminiscent daydreams, we hear the laughter of a woman, who will later be revealed as â€Å"The Woman†, his mistress. (1226) Willy has just added another criteria to analyze him against. He is unfaithful to his committed and loving wife. Until now, I could sympathize with Willy’s insecurities, even understand his need to overinflate his earnings and maybe even relate to his temper. But, positioned against my own moral standards, I don’t care for a womanizer. Nor would I make an exception if the roles were reversed. He pulls away from the memory and declares, â€Å"You’re the best there is, Linda, you’re a pal, you know that?Ã'  On the road—on the road I want to grab you sometimes and just kiss the life outa you.† (1226) Anyone who understands simple psychology realizes that it is guilt that moves him to profess affection for his wife. Yet, a key term he uses provides insight to how he actually views her, â€Å" you’re a pal†. These words cannot be misconstrued to mean: I love you, you mean the world to me, and I can’t wait to rush home to you. As a matter of fact, he retreats into his memories and we spend time with â€Å"The Woman†. In this brief moment we can conclude that his mistress provides an outlet when he’s on the road, she fuels his ego, and she suits his purpose by being able to send him directly into the buyers. In return, he fulfills her material need for stockings. (1227) Back from his memory of â€Å"The Woman†, we are still in the past where he is remembering a scene of Linda mending her stockings. He commands her to throw them away. Although we already know Biff and Happy from their own earlier dialogues and Willy’s memories (which I did not address), it is here that Linda provides insight into younger Biff. She tells Willy that Biff must return a football that he stole from the school, and that he is also too rough with the neighborhood girls. (1227) Willy is annoyed with Biff and he explodes at Linda when she urges him to do something about Biff’s behavior. (1228). It is important to know, all of Willy’s past memories and mumblings have occurred while he went down to the kitchen for that glass of milk. Finally, we arrive at the kitchen, in the present. This part does not include Linda. Yet, I find it important to include because this exchange contains a missed opportunity. Not that there weren’t several others. Happy comes down to check on Willy. He finds his father mumbling, and out of concern and sadness, Happy tells him that he will financially provide for the rest of Willy’s life. In expressing his frustration with Happy’s claim to â€Å"retire† him for life, Willy makes an explicit cry for help, â€Å"You’ll retire me for life on seventy goddam dollars a week? And your women and your car and your apartment, and you’ll retire me for life! Christ’s sake, I couldn’t get past Yonkers today! Where are you guys, where are you? The woods are burning! I can’t drive a car!† (1228) And there it is! A desperate, agonizing plea for attention, ‘Where are you guys? The woods are burning!’. He realizes his condition, he is begging to be acknowledged, begging for attention, and begging for help! He feels alone in his suffering. I could imagine his desperation, and we would not be human if we too did not feel his pain. The neighbor, Charley enters, and Happy is sent away. In the interest of focusing on Linda, we will fast forward through this part. Yet, during Charley’s visit and through Willy’s memories, we meet an influential character in Willy’s life (his successful brother Ben). Charley leaves after a heated round of cards. Yet, we remain in the kitchen while Willy heads outside. Linda comes looking for Willy in the kitchen. Both boys come down to discuss their father’s apparent troubling condition. Instead of addressing it, she scolds them both for being judgmental of their father. Happy transfers his anger onto Biff and blames his father’s condition on Biff’s failures. This scene foreshadows the underlying trouble between Biff and his father. Linda asks Biff, â€Å"Why are you so hateful to each other? Why is that?† (1235) Biff is reluctant to admit that he is resentful towards his father. She cautions that one day the boys will try to come home and there will be strangers in the house. Biff replies, â€Å"What are you talking about? You’re not even sixty, Mom.† She reminds him that his father is not doing well and goes on to say, â€Å"Biff, dear, if you don’t have any feeling for him, then you can’t have any feeling for me.† (1235) This is an endearing symbol that all families are interconnected, and we each play an integral role. In a passionate plea she proclaims, â€Å"You can’t just come to see me, because I love him.† She goes on to acknowledge Willy’s character flaw, â€Å"I know he’s not easy to get along with—nobody knows that better than me—but†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (1235) Willy enters the kitchen and he is delighted to see Biff. His erratic behavior is puzzling, and Biff asks, â€Å"What the hell is the matter with him?† Linda defends Willy, as if from a physical threat, â€Å"Don’t—don’t go near him!† Out of disgust, Biff snaps, â€Å"Stop making excuses for him! He always, always wiped the floor with you. Never had an ounce of respect for you.† (1235) This is a loaded, emotional and hurtful comment. But, we will easily unpack why Biff feels that his father has not cherished his mother. Another scene, that does not directly involve Linda, is a mandatory addition. Nearing the end, we come to know that the younger Biff caught his father with â€Å"The Woman† in a hotel, while his father was on a business trip. (1267) The experience grants Biff a moment of clarity, it also permanently shatters his image of his father. Ultimately, she is the measure that Biff judges his father by. In that hotel room, the reality of his father’s pretentious persona crystallizes. He calls him a liar, and a fake. (1268) We will come to understand that this pivotal moment created a fissure that could never be filled. Inevitably, it altered the chain of events in Biff and Willy’s lives, not to mention Linda’s. They remain distant from that moment forward. Poor Linda is never directly told about the affair, which is the sole reason of why Biff resents his father, and the ultimate reason that has caused Willy to be so depressed. The most important detail I have saved for last. As I first claimed, I found Linda to be the most important woman that brings Willy into perspective for us. Early on, Linda confesses to her boys that Willy has deliberately smashed the car on two separate occasions, (1237) and that she has found a hose in the basement that he intended to connect to a gas line. Just prior she delivers a very heartfelt command to her boys. For us, Linda sums Willy up, â€Å"Willy Loman never made a lot of money. His name was never in the paper. He’s not the finest character that ever lived. But he’s a human being, and a terrible thing is happening to him. So attention must be paid. He’s not to be allowed to fall into his grave like an old dog. Attention, attention must be finally paid to such a person.† (1236) There we have it, Willy has attempted suicide and continues to be tormented with his ideations. Unfortunately, his final suicide attempt is successful. What a strange word, ‘successful’ can be when used to describe death by suicide. But, in Willy’s mind, through death he could attain financial success, make a lasting impression with his sons (mainly Biff) another form of success to Willy, leave 20K for Linda (huge success), and have everyone acknowledge him with a big â€Å"send off† (success in the form of recognition). As we know, in the end, it did not play out that way. The few people in attendance did not view his death as a success. What he left behind was pain.

Personal Statement Of Purpose Of A Person Is Born - 870 Words

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The Importance of the Industrial Revolution - 649 Words

The Industrial Revolution was a period of time consisting of great technological advancements that allowed for greater production of goods. Although some changes supported the increase of the quality of life, most changes affected the life of the lower class people. The Industrial Revolution had the greatest amount of social effects as opposed to economic and political effects because of the dramatic changes in working conditions, social classes, and living conditions. Working conditions was a big focus during the Industrial Revolution. Because of the invention of the steam engine, smoke was pouring out of factory buildings leading to massive amounts of pollution. Not only did factories affect the air, workers who continued to work in factories were subject to more dangerous surroundings. When Henry Ford invented the assembly line , he only thought of producing more goods. It never occurred to him that workers could be injured by getting hair, clothing, or maybe even hands caught in the machines. Workers who worked in coal mines had it the worst. Frequent accidents, damp conditions, and the constant breathing of coal dust made the average miners life span ten years shorter than that of other workers . In addition, factory bosses were unrelenting in exercising discipline. Because factory owners wanted to increase production, they increased the amount of hours a worker had to work per day. Working conditions had a great impact on the Industrial Revolution. Social classesShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of The Industrial Revolution931 Words   |  4 Pagesthat was large and fierce. The empire was so expansive that it stretched so far that it covered 25% of the earth’s land mass during that time. The big industrial innovations that came about in England helped to begin the revolution that they have been credited for. 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Analysis Of Lieutenant Cross Carried A Letter And...

Lieutenant Cross carried a letter and pictures from Martha, a girl back home. His obsession with Martha distracts him from his duties as a platoon leader. He constantly finds himself fantasizing about her when he should be checking the perimeter or watching for ambushes. Lt. Cross not only carried the photographs of Martha, but he also carried his love for her and the pain of knowing she would never return his love. Martha had sent him a pebble from the Jersey shoreline. Lt. Cross carried it in his mouth while humping and pretended that he was back with Martha at college instead of in Vietnam. He sat wondering if she was a virgin while Lee Strunk crawled through an underground tunnel, and a Viet Cong sniper shot Ted Lavender. The next morning Jimmy Cross burnt Martha’s picture and her letters, but the guilt remained. He resolved to stop pining and act like a Platoon Leader. Each soldier carries the same standard issue protective gear and weapons that help him survive. But they also ‘humped’ a variety of other items dictated by personal preferences, such as a Bible, comic books, foot powder, a hunting hatchet, and marijuana. Rank also dictated what they carried. Platoon leaders carried a pistol, RTO’s carried the radio, medics carried morphine and syringes, big men carried machine guns, and regular grunts carried standard issue M-16’s among other equipment. They carried a silent awe at the power of the weapons, which could keep them alive by killing the enemy. They carriedShow MoreRelatedJimmy Cross’s Final Decision in OBriens, The Things They Carried907 Words   |  4 PagesIn the story, â€Å"The Things They Carried†, author Tim O’Brien described specific items that each of his soldiers carried with them to the Vietnam War front. The items that the soldiers carried were for mental protection; they believed that the things they carried would take their minds off all the terror and violence that was going on around them. The protagonist, Lieutenant Jimmy cross, carries out letters from a girl named Martha, which leads to him losing his focus for the war and a lack of protectionRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesstrategic issues of speciï ¬ c organisations in much greater depth – and often providing ‘solutions’ to some of the problems or difï ¬ culties identiï ¬ ed in the case. There are also over 33 classic cases on the Companion Website. These are a selection of cases from recent editions of the book which remain relevant for teaching. The case studies are intended to serve as a basis for class discussion and not as an illustration of either good or bad management practice. They are not intended to be a comprehensiveRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 Pageswell-known successes. While mistakes provide valuable learning insights, we can also learn from successes and find nuggets by comparing the unsuccessful with the successful. With the addition of Google and Starbucks, we have moved Entrepreneurial Adventures up to the front of the book. We have continued Marketing Wars, which many of you recommended, and reinstated Comebacks of firms iii iv †¢ Preface rising from adversity. I have also brought back Ethical Mistakes, because I believe that organizations

Roman Class System Free Essays

Roman Class System An integral part of Roman culture is the divergence of class systems. The laws of ancient Rome actually enforced this divide. People were born into one of two extremes. We will write a custom essay sample on Roman Class System or any similar topic only for you Order Now You were either considered upper class or lower class. There was no concept for a middle class in the Roman empire. This had a major influence in how you would live out your life. Children born into the noble class would eventually strive for a senate seat or to progress their wealth, while being born into the lower class, for the most part, were stuck there even though there was the ability for upward mobility it was extremely uncommon if not impossible in some cases. Aside from these two major groups of classes there was no bridging class between the two. No middle class to speak of creates a major distinction between wealth and life opportunities. The upper class consisted of two sub classes. These were Senators (Senatorial Class) or the rich (Equestrian Class). The Senatorial Class was completely defined by holding a political office and their families. They were distinguishable by tunics with broad stripes on them. There was also a massive monetary requirement attached as well, further enforcing the divide by being required to prove â€Å"that they had property worth at least 1,000,000 sesterces†(vroma. org). They had no income purely from being in the senate however but were forbidden to participate in any â€Å"nonagricultural business, trade or public contracts†(McManus). The Equestrian Class was the lowest of the Upper Class and was majorly defined by an individuals wealth or family line. They were set apart from society by wearing tunics with narrow stripes on them. â€Å"A man could be formally enrolled in the equestrian order if he could prove that he possessed a stable minimum amount of wealth (property worth at least 400,000 sesterces)†(McManus). This price was mostly unattainable for common people and was a major driving factor in the massive divide between the Upper and Lower Class. The Equestrians were mostly entrusted with business that was prohibited for anyone who was in the Senatorial Class. In this particular class there was upward mobility possible but it was infrequent and not common at all. However if an individual was elected into the senate he legally became a member of the Senatorial Class along with his family. The lower class was virtually every other person in roman society, spanning from common people, people who lived in italy, foreigners, freed people, and even slaves at the very bottom of the bottom. Anyone who was born into the lower class, just like the upper class, remained in the lower class after birth. â€Å"On the streets of Rome citizens, non-citizens, slaves and ex-slaves may have mingled quite freely, showing few observable symbols of their status† (bbc. o. uk). This can be viewed as a further divide between the social elite and the rest of society because they made sure that everyone who saw them knew who they were based on their attire. However despite the massive gap in social classes it was still possible to bridge into nobility from the lower end of society, besides freed people and slaves. â€Å"Birth remained important, and new citizen s, however wealthy, could be stigmatised by their past. Ex-slaves in particular could not escape the taint of slavery, and were not allowed to hold high office† (bbc. co. uk). Slaves and even freed slaves were particularly interesting in ancient roman society. Freed people could either be released from slavery by their masters or buy their freedom. They were seemingly only released from the title of of slavery for their blood line from then on however. They were ineligible for office positions; this and being still in service of their former master, now their patron, made it impossible for a freedman to have any chance of mobility. Their children, on the other hand, became full roman citizens. But even then they didn’t receive the same treatment or chances through life. There was a social stigma attached to being a freedman’s son†(McManus). This made it difficult for even a freed person’s children to succeed because of the name that distinguishes them from any other Roman citizen. But it seems that after a few generations the stigma was lost due to the lack of people to attest to any particular person’s heritage over time as generations pass away (Dowlingsoka). This giving them just as much, although very slim, of a chance to bridge the seemingly impossible bridge from commoner to equestrian given enough success and wealth. It may have become clear that until now women have not been mentioned once. This is due to the fact that women had no say in their class. They were placed where they were purely because of the class that their father was or the class of their husband. Cicero makes it very clear how men saw females in society when he wrote, â€Å"Our ancestors, in their wisdom, considered that all women, because of their innate weakness, should be under the control of guardians† (roman-empire. net). This by no means says that women were not successful in their own right. while Roman women held no direct political power, those from wealthy or powerful families could and did exert influence through private negotiations† (Milnor) Women used their connections very powerfully. For example â€Å"most prominently Livia, who contributed to the formation of Imperial mores† (Rawson). Roman society seems to have been extremely rigid when it came to most things, social classes in particular ho wever. While the ability to leap from lower class to upper class existed it was extremely difficult due to the wealth required to be legally considered an upper class citizen, and women were seemingly along for the ride. Women along side with slaves were unable to attain office and were looked down upon. However in both cases all was not lost, women took advantage of their connections and were able to make a real impact on history and slaves were able to, while not being fully freed themselves, give their blood line hope down the rode to becoming wealthy and successful Works Cited Burns, Jasper. â€Å"Sabina,† in Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (Routledge, 2007), pp. 124–140. DowlingSoka, Joel . People of ill-repute and Non-Romans in Roman Society. † Roman Civilization. The Ohio State University. ., Columbus, Ohio. 20 Feb. 2013. Class lecture. Hope, Dr Valerie. â€Å"BBC – History – Ancient History in depth: Social Pecking Order in the Roman World. † BBC – Homepage. N. p. , 29 Mar. 2011. Web. 12 Mar. 2013. . McManus, Barbara F.. â€Å"Roman Social Class and Public Display. † VROMA :: Home. N. p. , 1 Jan. 2009. Web. 12 Mar. 2013. . Rawson, Beryl. â€Å"Finding Roman Women,† in A Companion to the Roman Republic (Blackwell, 2010), p. 325. How to cite Roman Class System, Papers

Kants Humanity Formula Essay Example For Students

Kants Humanity Formula Essay Kant: The Humanity Formula Few formulas in philosophy have been so widely accepted and variously interpreted as Kants injunction to treat humanity as an end in itself(Hill, 38). Immanuel Kants views, as elucidated in his book, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, are based on the belief that people count by prohibiting actions which exploit other individuals in order for self-prosperity or altruistic ends. Ethics then, are confirmed by the dignity and worth of the rational agency of each person. Since human beings are the only rational beings capable of decision making and reasonable judgement, humanity must be valued. Kant proposes a test that ensures that humanity is treated with respect, and not used merely as an instrument. To understand how he defines this test, we must first take a look at the foundation of his main principle, the Categorical Imperative. Kants way of determining morality of actions is quite different from other philosophers, and many find it extremely hard to grasp or implausible. The central concept of his basic test for morality found in his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals is the categorical imperative. The representation of an objective principle, insofar as it is necessitating for a will, is called a command (of reason), and the formula of the command is called an imperative(Kant, 24). In other words, an imperative is something that a will ought or shall do because the will is obligated to act in a way in which conforms to moral law. Imperatives can also be referred to as the supreme principle of morality. According to Kant, there are two types of imperatives: hypothetical and categorical. Hypothetical imperatives are actions that look for the best means to a goal, however, the goal might not necessarily be an end in itself. On the other hand, the categorical imperative is an objectively necessary means to an end in itself, and the action to obtain the end, must have moral worth. If we as rational agents, have any morality at all Kant says, it takes the form of rational, categorical imperatives (commands of reason) and is found a priori excluding all interests and desires. These commands of reason are proven by the Universal Law Formula, which when applied, is a method for determining the morality of actions. How is this formula applied though? Kantian philosophy is derived from the belief that actions should be universalizable, and this formula, which is a two-part test, ensures that actions of rational agents can be universally accepted. First, one creates a maxim and considers whether the maxim could possibly be a universal law for all rational beings. Second, one determines whether rational beings would will it to be a universal law. Once the maxim passes both tests, there are no exceptions to it. Kant truly believed in the value of humanity, and felt that everyone should be subjected to the same moral standards. The Universal Law Formula was his method of ensuring this, requiring maxims to be universally acceptable to all rational beings. In the latter half of Section II, he imposes even further stringent requirements for treating humanity in universally acceptable means by proposing his Humanity Formula. Human beings have the special capacity to exercise rational judgement, foresee future consequences, adopt long-range goals, and resist immediate temptation, so we must therefore value rational agents as an end (Hill, 40-41). This yields one of three formulations of the categorical imperative, and the one that is most worth discussing, the humanity formula: So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means (Kant, 38). Kant probably intended persons are ends and humanity in persons is an end and therefore humans should be treated in a humane way. In other words, we must always treat people with respect to the virtue of their rational capacity and as though their existence alone is valuable. According to Kant, treating people as rational agents and means to ends, also demands (if the agent is fully rational) consent. Treating people only in ways to which they could consent, in so far as they are rational, not merely as means .